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Comparative Overview of English Language Tests for Entry to Higher Education

The information below is derived solely from publicly available sources and reflects the data accessible as of early 2026.

The following tables constitute a consolidated summary of such materials. While all reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information presented, publicly available data may be altered, updated, or withdrawn by the originating organisations without prior notice. Accordingly, no representation or warranty, express or implied, is given as to the continued accuracy of the content.

Should you become aware of any inaccuracies, discrepancies, or subsequent updates, you are requested to notify us so that appropriate amendments may be made.

1. Company Overview ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Parent Organisation	British Council, IDP Education, and Cambridge University Press & Assessment (joint ownership)	Educational Testing Service (ETS)	Pearson plc	englishcheck Ltd (part of the EQUALS group)	Duolingo, Inc.	PeopleCert (operating as LanguageCert)	Kaplan International (part of Kaplan, Inc.)	Oxford University Press (a department of the University of Oxford)
Headquarters	Co-owned across the UK and Australia	Princeton, New Jersey, USA	London, UK	London, UK	Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA	Athens, Greece and London, UK	London, UK, with global offices	Oxford, UK
Organisation Type	Joint venture between a registered charity (British Council), a publicly listed company (IDP Education, ASX), and a university press (Cambridge)	Non-profit organisation	Publicly listed corporation (LSE: PSON)	Private limited company	Publicly listed corporation (NASDAQ: DUOL)	Private company (PeopleCert Group)	Subsidiary of Kaplan, Inc., itself part of Graham Holdings Company (NYSE: GHC)	Department of the University of Oxford; operates on a not-for-profit basis
Primary Market	Global: accepted in over 140 countries by more than 12,000 organisations	Global: accepted in over 160 countries by more than 12,000 institutions	Global: strong uptake in Australia, New Zealand, UK, and Canada	Primarily the UK higher education sector, with growing international recognition	Global: accepted by over 5,000 programmes at more than 4,500 institutions	Primarily Europe and the Middle East, with growing global recognition	Primarily the UK and Europe, with selected global markets	Primarily Europe and Latin America, with growing global recognition

2. Test History ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Year Launched	1989 in its current form; predecessor test (ELTS) launched in 1980	Original TOEFL launched 1964; CBT 1998; iBT 2005. Redesigned TOEFL iBT launched January 2026	2009 as PTE Academic	2008	2016 in beta; full public launch in 2019	2015 under the LanguageCert brand following PeopleCert’s acquisition of the City & Guilds language testing portfolio	2019	2018, initially at B2 level
Major Revisions	Computer-delivered option introduced 2017–2018. Scoring mapped to CEFR. Ongoing item bank renewal	2023: shortened format. January 2026: complete redesign with new band 1–6 score scale, MST for Reading and Listening, new task types, and at-home delivery option	November 2021: test shortened from ~3 hours to ~2 hours; task types modified; scoring algorithm updated. PTE Core launched 2024	Periodic item bank updates; introduction of online proctored delivery	Adaptive algorithm updates; subscore reporting introduced 2020; ongoing security enhancements	Expansion of online proctored delivery; documentation of alignment to CEFR levels	Ongoing development and expansion of the adaptive item bank	B2 level launched 2018; A2, B1, and C1 levels added subsequently
Annual Test Volume (approx.)	Approximately 3.5 million tests per year (2023)	Approximately 2 million or more globally (pre-2026 figures)	Not publicly disclosed; Pearson reports significant and sustained growth	Not publicly disclosed	Over 3 million tests per year	Not publicly disclosed	Not publicly disclosed	Not publicly disclosed

3. Test Construct ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Underlying Construct	Four-skills English language proficiency for academic contexts. Each skill assessed and reported separately	Hybrid construct combining foundational second-language competence and communicative language ability in academic and daily life contexts	Communicative English language proficiency across four skills plus six enabling skills (Grammar, Oral Fluency, Pronunciation, Spelling, Vocabulary, Written Discourse)	Core academic English proficiency across Reading, Listening, and Writing, with an optional separate Speaking module	General English proficiency via computer-adaptive format, measuring four sub-scores (Literacy, Conversation, Comprehension, Production) plus an overall score	Four-skills English language proficiency aligned to specific CEFR levels	Academic English proficiency across four skills, with integrated task types reflecting linguistic demands of English-medium higher education	Four-skills English language proficiency mapped to CEFR levels (A2, B1, B2, or C1)
CEFR Alignment	Band scores mapped to CEFR levels, covering B1 through C2	Designed to cover CEFR A1 to C2. Mapping based on field test data and standard setting studies	Score ranges mapped to CEFR levels from A1 to C2	Mapped to CEFR levels from A1 to C2	Overall and sub-scores mapped to CEFR levels via published conversion tables	Tests available at specific CEFR levels: B1, B2, C1, and C2	Scores mapped to CEFR levels	Tests targeted at specific CEFR levels: A2, B1, B2, and C1
Score Scale	Band 0–9 in half-band increments per skill and overall	Band 1–6 per section in half-band increments; overall band is average of four sections. MyBest scores also reported	Overall score of 10–90; communicative and enabling skills each reported on the same 10–90 scale	CEFR level-based reporting (A1–C2) with numerical sub-scores per skill	Overall score of 10–160; sub-scores for Literacy, Conversation, Comprehension, and Production	Pass or Fail at the targeted CEFR level; percentage scores for each skill also reported	Scores reported and mapped to CEFR levels	Each skill scored on a scale of 51–140, mapped to CEFR levels

4. Test Items ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Reading Tasks	Three long academic passages; 40 questions. Task types include multiple choice, True/False/Not Given, Yes/No/Not Given, matching, heading matching, sentence completion, and summary/table/diagram completion	Three task types: Complete the Words (C-test), Read in Daily Life, and Read an Academic Passage (~200 words). 35 scored items per test path via multistage adaptive testing	Five task types: Reading and Writing Fill in the Blanks, Multiple Choice Multiple Answer, Re-order Paragraphs, Reading Fill in the Blanks, and Multiple Choice Single Answer	Academic-style passages with multiple choice, gap fill, and text completion. Difficulty calibrated to targeted CEFR level	Integrated into Literacy and Comprehension sub-scores. Includes interactive read-and-respond items and passage completion. Adaptive item selection	Texts appropriate to the targeted CEFR level. Task types include multiple choice, gap fill, and multiple matching	Academic passages with multiple choice and gap fill	Part-based tasks: multiple choice, matching, gap fill, and multiple matching
Listening Tasks	Four recorded monologues and conversations; 40 questions. Task types include multiple choice, matching, diagram labelling, sentence/note/table completion, and short-answer questions. Each recording heard once only	Four task types: Listen and Choose a Response, Listen to a Conversation, Listen to an Announcement, Listen to an Academic Talk. 35 scored items per test path	Eight task types including Summarize Spoken Text, Multiple Choice Multiple Answer, Fill in the Blanks, Highlight Correct Summary, Select Missing Word, Highlight Incorrect Words, and Write from Dictation	Audio recordings at CEFR level with multiple choice and gap fill	Integrated into Conversation and Comprehension sub-scores. Listen-and-respond and interactive listening exercises. Adaptive item selection	Audio recordings at CEFR level with multiple choice, gap fill, and matching	Audio prompts with multiple choice and gap fill	Part-based tasks at CEFR level: multiple choice, matching, and gap fill
Writing Tasks	Two tasks: Task 1 (describe visual information, min. 150 words, 20 mins); Task 2 (essay, min. 250 words, 40 mins)	Three task types: Build a Sentence (10 items, key-scored), Write an Email (1 item, rubric-scored), Write for an Academic Discussion (1 item, rubric-scored)	Two task types: Summarize Written Text (one-sentence summary) and Write Essay (200–300 words)	Extended writing task at the targeted CEFR level; format varies by level (guided writing, essay, or report)	Integrated into Literacy and Production sub-scores. Includes a 5-minute writing sample in response to an adaptive prompt	Extended tasks by CEFR level: email, essay, or report. Assessed against CEFR-aligned criteria	Extended writing task(s) appropriate to CEFR level, reflecting academic writing demands	Extended tasks by CEFR level: email, essay, or article
Speaking Tasks	Three-part interview with a certified examiner, 11–14 minutes total. Part 1: interview on familiar topics; Part 2: long turn from cue card; Part 3: two-way discussion on abstract themes	Two task types: Listen and Repeat (7 items) and Take an Interview (4 questions, prerecorded interviewer). No live or AI interlocutor	Six task types: Personal Introduction (unscored), Read Aloud, Repeat Sentence, Describe Image, Re-tell Lecture, and Answer Short Question	Optional module: structured interview and monologue. Human-rated against CEFR-aligned criteria	Integrated into Conversation and Production sub-scores. Includes speak-and-respond tasks and a video interview segment. Adaptive task selection	Structured interview, sustained monologue, and discussion. May be face-to-face or computer-delivered	Monologue and discussion elements assessing academic spoken English	Part-based tasks: interview, long turn, and collaborative task with an examiner
Integrated / Innovative Items	Skills tested independently; no integrated tasks combining skills within a single item	Combines foundational skill tasks with communicative tasks. No traditional integrated read-then-write tasks	Several item types contribute to scores in more than one skill. Six enabling skills derived from performance across multiple task types	At higher levels, writing task may draw on a reading stimulus	Adaptive format blends modalities within the session, contributing to multiple sub-scores	At higher CEFR levels, some tasks require integrating skills (e.g., listen then respond in speech)	Integrated tasks include reading-into-writing and listening-into-speaking	Collaborative speaking task integrates listening and speaking

5. Test Delivery ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Delivery Mode	Paper-based or computer-delivered at authorised test centres. Speaking is always face-to-face and may be scheduled on a separate day	Computer-delivered at authorised test centres or at home via TOEFL iBT Home Edition	Computer-delivered at authorised Pearson test centres only. No at-home testing option	Computer-delivered at authorised test centres or at home/office via online proctoring	Computer-delivered online at a location of the test taker’s choice using AI-based proctoring supplemented by human review	Computer-delivered at authorised test centres or at home via online proctoring with live or recorded invigilation	Computer-delivered at authorised test centres or at home via online proctoring	Computer-delivered at authorised test centres only. No at-home testing option
Adaptive Testing	Non-adaptive: all test takers receive a fixed test form	Multistage adaptive testing (MST) for Reading and Listening: two-stage design with a router module. Writing and Speaking are linear	Non-adaptive: all test takers receive a linear sequence of tasks	Non-adaptive: fixed test forms calibrated to the targeted CEFR level	Fully computer-adaptive: algorithm selects each item based on responses to previous items, adjusting difficulty in real time	Non-adaptive: fixed test forms calibrated to the targeted CEFR level	Item-bank-based selection with adaptive elements reported in test documentation	Non-adaptive: fixed test forms calibrated to the targeted CEFR level
Test Frequency	Multiple test dates per month at most centres worldwide	Multiple test dates per week at test centres; Home Edition available near-continuously	Near-continuous availability, with sessions up to 365 days per year at some centres	Flexible scheduling via test centres or online proctoring platform	Available on demand, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week	Regular scheduled dates at centres; online proctored sessions available frequently	Regular scheduled dates at centres; online proctored sessions also available	Regular scheduled dates at authorised centres
Security Measures	Biometric identity verification (photograph, fingerprint scanning at some centres); multiple test versions; ongoing post-test statistical monitoring	At-home: secure lockdown browser, AI monitoring with live remote human proctors, mandatory dual camera, room scans, identity verification. Test centre: trained administrators and continuous monitoring. Post-test: statistical analyses by ETS Office of Testing Integrity	Biometric identity verification (palm-vein scanning) at test centres; AI monitoring; randomised test form assembly from item bank	Photo identity verification; online proctoring with continuous video recording; secure browser application	AI-based proctoring with continuous video and screen recording; human review of flagged sessions; adaptive item selection reduces item exposure	Photo identity verification; remote proctoring with live invigilation or continuous video recording	Photo identity verification; proctoring at test centres or remotely via secure browser and video monitoring	Secure test centre protocols; photo identity verification; controlled test environment

6. Marking Format ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Reading & Listening	Automated scoring of objective items (correct/incorrect against an answer key)	Key-scored; scores equated across MST paths using item response theory (IRT) to ensure comparability	Automated scoring: objective items key-scored; constructed-response items scored by AI algorithms	Automated scoring of objective items	AI-scored using machine learning models	Automated scoring of objective items	Automated scoring of objective items	Automated scoring of objective items
Writing	Human rated by trained IELTS examiners using published band descriptors. Double marking applied as standard quality assurance	Build a Sentence key-scored. Write an Email and Write for an Academic Discussion scored by ETS proprietary AI engines combined with human rater scoring. Human–Machine correlation: 0.86	Fully AI-scored by Pearson’s automated essay scoring engine. No human raters in the standard pipeline	Human rated by trained assessors using CEFR-aligned assessment criteria	AI-scored using machine learning models. Unusual or low-confidence responses referred for human review	Human rated by trained examiners using CEFR-aligned assessment criteria	Human rated by trained assessors	Human rated by trained examiners using CEFR-aligned assessment criteria
Speaking	Human rated by certified IELTS examiners during the face-to-face interview. Assessed on fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and pronunciation	Listen and Repeat and Take an Interview scored by ETS proprietary AI engines combined with human rater scoring. Human–Machine correlation: 0.89	Fully AI-scored by Pearson’s automated speech recognition and scoring engine. No human raters in the standard pipeline	Human rated by trained assessors when the optional speaking module is taken	AI-scored using speech recognition and machine learning models. Flagged responses referred for human review	Human rated by trained examiners, either live or from a recorded session	Human rated by trained assessors	Human rated by trained examiners
Quality Assurance	Examiner certification programme with regular retraining and monitoring; item pre-testing; statistical analysis of all test forms; moderation procedures across marking centres	Human raters hold relevant qualifications; web-based training and certification required; continuous monitoring by scoring leaders; calibration tests at start of each session; each response scored by multiple independent raters; AI models regularly refined for fairness	AI scoring engines trained and calibrated against expert human rater scores. Pearson conducts regular statistical monitoring and publishes technical reports	Assessor training and standardisation procedures; item pre-testing and review	Continuous training and refinement of AI scoring models; human review layer for flagged responses; ongoing security monitoring and item exposure management	Examiner training and standardisation procedures; item moderation and review processes	Assessor standardisation procedures; item banking and quality control processes	Examiner standardisation procedures; item pre-testing; statistical analysis of test performance

7. Length of Test ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Total Test Time	~2 hrs 45 mins (paper-based) or ~2 hrs (computer-delivered), plus Speaking (11–14 mins, may be scheduled separately)	~1 hr 40 mins to 2 hrs. Fixed sequence: Reading, Listening, Writing, Speaking	~2 hours	~1 to 1.5 hours for core modules, plus additional time if optional Speaking module is taken	~1 hour, though duration varies by test taker due to adaptive design	~2.5 to 3 hours, varying by targeted CEFR level	~2 to 2.5 hours	~2 hours, varying by targeted CEFR level
Reading	40 items; 60 minutes	35 scored items per test path (20 in router module, 15 in second-stage module)	15–20 items; ~29–30 minutes	~25–35 minutes	Integrated into overall test time; not separately timed	~40–65 minutes depending on level	~30–40 minutes	~30–40 minutes
Listening	40 items; ~30 minutes of audio (plus 10 minutes transfer time for paper-based format)	35 scored items per test path (20 in router module, 15 in second-stage module)	15–23 items; ~30–43 minutes	~25–30 minutes	Integrated into overall test time; not separately timed	~25–40 minutes depending on level	~25–35 minutes	~25–35 minutes
Writing	2 tasks; 60 minutes total	12 scored items: 10 Build a Sentence, 1 Write an Email, 1 Write for an Academic Discussion	2 tasks; ~40–50 minutes within combined Speaking and Writing section	~25–40 minutes	Integrated; includes a 5-minute writing sample	~40–70 minutes	~30–45 minutes	~30–45 minutes
Speaking	3 parts; 11–14 minutes total	11 scored items: 7 Listen and Repeat, 4 Take an Interview questions	6 task types; ~30–35 minutes within combined Speaking and Writing section	Optional module; ~10–15 minutes	Integrated into overall test time; not separately timed	~15–20 minutes	~10–15 minutes	~15 minutes

8. Cost of Test ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Approximate Cost (USD)	$245–$255, varying by country and test centre	Varies by country; ETS has stated a design objective of competitive and affordable pricing	$200–$260, varying by country and test centre	~$60–$120; generally lower price point than IELTS, TOEFL, and PTE	$59 standard test; $79 for version with enhanced institutional reporting	~$80–$200, varying by targeted CEFR level and location	~$100–$180	~$80–$150, varying by targeted CEFR level and location
Results Turnaround	13 calendar days (paper-based); 3–5 business days (computer-delivered)	Official scores within 72 hours. Report includes MyBest scores	Typically within 48 hours; in many cases within 24 hours	Typically within 5 working days	Within 48 hours; in many cases within 24 hours	Typically within 5–10 working days	Typically within 5 working days	Within 14 days
Score Validity Period	2 years from the test date	2 years from the test date. MyBest scores draw from all valid administrations within the preceding 2 years	2 years from the test date	2 years from the test date (institution-dependent policies may vary)	2 years from the test date	2 years from the test date	2 years from the test date	2 years from the test date

9. Validity Studies ▼

Feature	IELTS Academic	TOEFL iBT (Jan 2026)	PTE Academic	Password	Duolingo English Test	LanguageCert	Kaplan Test of English	Oxford Test of English
Published Validity Research	Extensive. Multi-decade research programme published in IELTS Research Reports series, Cambridge Assessment research reports, and peer-reviewed journals. Covers construct validation, scoring quality, test impact, and test preparation effects	TOEFL iBT Technical Manual (Manna et al., 2025) presents a formal validity argument across six hierarchical inferences (Chapelle, 2008 framework). Developed through iterative prototyping (N=570), pilot testing (N=700), and field testing (N≈5,000). Described as a living document. Broader ETS TOEFL research base spans decades	Pearson publishes technical reports and research papers through the Pearson Research and Innovation team. Topics include scoring validity, CEFR alignment, and AI scoring quality	Limited published research in the public domain. Technical documentation available on request	Growing body of research. Duolingo Research publishes technical reports and peer-reviewed papers on scoring validity, item design, and test security	Some published technical reports, including CEFR alignment documentation. Independently published research is limited	Limited publicly available validity research. Some technical documentation exists	Oxford University Press publishes research reports, including CEFR alignment studies. Some peer-reviewed publications are available
Predictive Validity	Studied extensively. Multiple studies document moderate positive correlations between IELTS scores and indicators of academic success (grades, progression, programme completion)	Predictive validity evidence for the January 2026 version planned for collection during the operational phase. The legacy TOEFL iBT has an extensive base of published predictive validity studies	Some studies report correlations between PTE Academic scores and academic outcomes. Evidence base is growing	Limited published data on the relationship between Password scores and academic success	Early studies indicate moderate correlations between Duolingo English Test scores and academic outcomes. Evidence base is developing	Limited published data on predictive validity for academic success	Limited published data on predictive validity for academic success	Some studies have been published. Evidence base is developing
Construct Validity	Strong. Published evidence includes factor analyses, content validity studies, and criterion-related validity studies accumulated over multiple decades	Initial evidence includes content-construct alignment analysis and rubric-score correspondence. Section-level reliability: Reading 0.86, Listening 0.88, Writing 0.87, Speaking 0.94, Overall 0.90. Factor analysis studies planned for the operational phase	Pearson’s technical reports include factor analyses, correlation studies, and documentation of construct representation across item types	Technical documentation describes alignment of the test construct to academic English demands. Independent verification is limited	Duolingo’s technical reports describe the IRT model underpinning the adaptive algorithm and construct coverage across item types	CEFR alignment documentation published. Some construct validity evidence reported in technical materials	Technical documentation available. Independent validation is limited	Construct aligned to CEFR. Oxford University Press research reports document alignment studies
Fairness & Bias Research	Published differential item functioning (DIF) analyses. Ongoing fairness monitoring and research into cultural and first-language bias as part of the IELTS research programme	DIF analyses conducted on 1,454 items by gender during development: 21 items flagged, none found to exhibit content bias on review. Field test data showed comparable performance across subgroups. AI scoring found not to disadvantage major first-language subgroups	Pearson reports fairness analyses in technical documentation. AI scoring engine analysed for differential performance across demographic groups	Limited published fairness research	Duolingo publishes DIF analyses and fairness research examining performance across demographic and linguistic subgroups	Limited published fairness research	Limited published fairness research	Some fairness documentation included in technical reports

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Comparative Overview of English Language Tests for Entry to Higher Education